Forgiveness of Sins Seventy Times Seven

Forgiveness of sins was a hallmark of Jesus’ ministry. Along with teaching, healing, exorcising the demonic, discipling, and prophesying, Jesus was also controversially known as one who declared sins forgiven and encouraged others to forgive. In Matthew 18, following a teaching on how his disciples should engage and forgive sinning brethren, there is this exchange which includes the parable of the unmerciful servant:

Then Peter came and said to Him, “Lord, how often shall my brother sin against me and I forgive him? Up to seven times?” Jesus said to him, “I do not say to you, up to seven times, but up to seventy times seven. “For this reason the kingdom of heaven may be compared to a king who wished to settle accounts with his slaves. When he had begun to settle them, one who owed him ten thousand talents was brought to him. But since he did not have the means to repay, his lord commanded him to be sold, along with his wife and children and all that he had, and repayment to be made. So the slave fell to the ground and prostrated himself before him, saying, ‘Have patience with me and I will repay you everything.’ And the lord of that slave felt compassion and released him and forgave him the debt. But that slave went out and found one of his fellow slaves who owed him a hundred denarii; and he seized him and began to choke him, saying, ‘Pay back what you owe.’ So his fellow slave fell to the ground and began to plead with him, saying, ‘Have patience with me and I will repay you.’ But he was unwilling and went and threw him in prison until he should pay back what was owed. So when his fellow slaves saw what had happened, they were deeply grieved and came and reported to their lord all that had happened. Then summoning him, his lord said to him, ‘You wicked slave, I forgave you all that debt because you pleaded with me. Should you not also have had mercy on your fellow slave, in the same way that I had mercy on you?’ And his lord, moved with anger, handed him over to the torturers until he should repay all that was owed him. My heavenly Father will also do the same to you, if each of you does not forgive his brother from your heart.” (Matthew 18:21-35)

The phrase “seventy times seven” (hebdomekontakis hepta) has often been associated with the story of Cain and his son Lamech in the Septuagint version of Genesis 4:24 in which the latter announces that whoever takes vengeance upon him will be punished 490 times over. The idea behind this connection is that this is Jesus’ inversion of the ancient “eye-for-an eye” ethic in favor of one of exhaustive forgiveness. While there may be an indirect reference here to the Genesis 4 story, I believe a more direct reference is that of Daniel 9:24-25.

Seventy weeks have been decreed for your people and your holy city, to finish the transgression, to make an end of sin, to make atonement for iniquity, to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal up vision and prophecy and to anoint the most holy place. So you are to know and discern that from the issuing of a decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until an anointed one the Prince there will be seven weeks and sixty-two weeks; it will be built again.

Because of their sins against God and their breaking of their part of the covenant, the Israelites had been punished for their unfaithfulness by exile in Babylon. The Temple had been destroyed and the glory of God had left. Exile was the curse that the Israelites’ covenant with God stipulated for sin (Deut 29). At the time, when Jeremiah predicted this exile, God had stated that it would last seventy years (Jer 25:11-12 and 29:10). Historically speaking, Jeremiah’s prediction was astonishingly accurate, and later generations made much of it (Zech 1:12; 2 Chron 36:20-21; Ezra 1:1). And while the physical exile came to an end and the Jews returned to their home land, there was still a sense that the exile had not ended. They were back in the promise land, but it was ruled by pagan enemies. The temple had been rebuilt, but God had not returned. It seemed like the covenant renewal promised by Deuteronomy 30, Jeremiah 31, and Ezekiel 36 had yet to be fulfilled. There was a belief that a spiritual exile was still in effect (Deuteronomy 30; Ezra 9:7; Nehemiah 9:36-37). If the Jews were still under the curse of the exile, then it must be because God had not yet fully forgiven the sins that led to that exile. In the vision of Daniel, the seventy years of Jeremiah has been reinterpreted to mean “seventy weeks of years” or 490 years. It is after this symbolic duration that sin will be defeated, atonement will be made, righteousness will come, and forgiveness will be granted.

This “seventy weeks of years” (or 490) is drawn from the concepts of the sabbath and jubilee years. The sabbath year (shmita, literally "release") is the seventh year of the seven-year agricultural cycle mandated by the Torah (Exod 23:10–11; Levi 25:1–7; Deut 15:1–6). During shmita, the land is left to lie fallow and all agricultural activity is forbidden. Among other things, this allowed the land to rest. Importantly, in 2 Chronicles 36:21, the seventy-year physical exile was understood to be an extended sabbath rest for the land. Jubilee years occurred after seven cycles of seven sabbath years, 49 years. Leviticus 25:8 says, “you are also to count off seven sabbaths of years for yourselves, seven times seven years, so that you have the time of the seven sabbaths of years, namely forty-nine years” (cf. 23:15). This was a year of land rest, return of lent property, debt forgiveness, and the freeing of slaves (Leviticus 25:10). The jubilee year was announced by a blast on a shofar, an instrument made from a ram's horn, during that year's Yom Kippur, or Day of Atonement, when sins were forgiven (v. 9; 16:29-30). The vision of Daniel extended the seventy-year sabbath rest and made it a 490-year jubilee year. The prophecy is that after the 490 years, there will be a jubilee in which exile will end, the land will be renewed, slaves released, and sins forgiven.

Therefore, the Jewish hope of the 1^st century CE is for the end of exile, the renewal of the covenant (Deut 30; Jer 31; Ezek 36), the defeat of Israel’s enemies (Psa 110; Dan 7), the forgiveness of sins (Isa 40:1-2; 43:14-28; Jer 31:31-40; Ezek 36:24-28), and the return of God (Ezek 43; Isa 40 and 52; Dan 7; Zech 9; Mal 3-4). These expectations can be seen in sweeping fashion in Isaiah 40-55, which predicts a new exodus (43:14-28; 51:1-23;), to redeem those enslaved to idolatry (42:5-9; 46:1-13; 51:1-23), and to bless the entire world which was the purpose of the covenant (41:2, 8-9; 42:5-9, 18-25; 45:1-13; 48:1-22; 49:7-13; 54:1-17; 55:1-13; cf. Genesis 12:3).

Enter Jesus.

Mark begins his gospel (1:2-3) by quoting Isaiah 40:3 and Malachi 3:1 which predict God is coming. Matthew cites that Isaiah 40:3 as well (cf. Luke 3:4-6). In 1:23, he cites Isaiah 10:14, calling Jesus Immanuel or “God with us.” In 21:5, Matthew cites the Zechariah 9:9 prophecy about God returning as Jesus enters Jerusalem. When Jesus then goes into the Temple (Mark 11:15-17), it fulfills the Malachi 3:1 prophecy cited by Mark. The Gospel writers are stating that Jesus is fulfilling the prophecies of God returning to his people. Jesus himself tells many parables about what it looks like when God returns (Matthew 21:33-44; 22:1-14; 25:1-13, 14-30, 31-46; Luke 19:11-27).

In the Gospel of Luke (4:16-30), Jesus inaugurates his ministry in the Nazarene synagogue by proclaiming a jubilee in the reading of Isaiah 61:1-2.

The Spirit of the Lord is upon Me,

Because He anointed Me to preach the gospel to the poor.

He has sent Me to proclaim release to the captives,

And recovery of sight to the blind,

To set free those who are oppressed,

To proclaim the favorable year of the Lord.

He claims this passage has now been fulfilled (v. 21). Jesus then proceeds to go around declaring people’s sins forgiven (Matt 9:2-6; Mark 2:5-10; Luke 5:20-24; 7:47-49). Indeed, even during his own crucifixion, he tells the Father to forgive people (Luke 23:34).

Most importantly, the actual crucifixion of Jesus brought about the ultimate forgiveness of sins (Matt 26:28; Luke 24:46-47; Eph 1:7-8; Col 1:13-14; Rom 6:6, 10-11; 8:3; Heb 10:17). At the Last Supper, Jesus links his crucifixion with the new covenant (Luke 22:20). Also note that Jesus’ work on the cross was held during Passover, the remembrance of how God rescued the Israelites from slavery. This was Jesus linking himself to the original exodus and the new exodus of Isaiah 40-55.[1] Indeed, Jesus refers to his sacrifice as a “ransom (lutron) for many” (Mark 10:45; Matt 20:28; cf. 1 Tim 2:6). The Greek word lutron means a price for redeeming, particularly a slave.

While Jesus’ work and ministry effect the ultimate forgiveness of sins hoped for by the Jewish people, in Matthew 18, Jesus’ teaching on “seventy times seven” and its illustrative parable not only point out the fulfillment of Daniel 9 but suggests an incorporation of his disciples within that process of forgiveness. Note similar sayings of Jesus on this concept:

“For if you forgive others for their transgressions, your heavenly Father will also forgive you. But if you do not forgive others, then your Father will not forgive your transgressions” (Matt 6:14-15).

“Whenever you stand praying, forgive, if you have anything against anyone, so that your Father who is in heaven will also forgive you your transgressions” (Mark 11:25).

“Pardon, and you will be pardoned” (Luke 6:37).

“And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors” (Matt 6:12).

Also note similar teachings by Paul:

“Forgive each other, whoever has a complaint against anyone; just as the Lord forgave you, so also should you” (Colossians 3:13).

“Forgive each other, just as God in Christ also has forgiven you” (Ephesians 4:32).

These teachings indicate that not only should Christians forgive as they have been forgiven, but that their own forgiveness by God is dependent upon on their forgiveness of others. In this sense, there is a communal aspect to forgiveness. I suggest that, in Jesus’ placement of this teaching within his fulfillment of the ultimate “seventy times seven” forgiveness of sins, those incorporated within Christ actively participate in the fulfillment of Jesus’ work for forgiveness of sins. How is this possible?

The answer comes in understanding the Hebrew conception of corporate solidarity and Jesus’ self-identification as the Messiah/Christ with the accompanying messianic figures of the Old Testament. The Hebrews thought that psychical functions had a physical basis, and that a human being is conceived not in terms of a “spirit” and “body” dichotomy, but synthetically as a psychical whole (nephesh). What is more, a person’s vital power was thought to reach far beyond the mere contour of the body. A man’s personality was thought to extend throughout his household and have both subtle and direct influence upon it. A strong solidarity then existed through the whole property in which the household could be conceived as a psychical whole. Therefore, an oscillation existed between individuals and the whole. This concept of corporate solidarity and oscillation then extends beyond the individual and household to institutions, nations, and the world itself. Headship of such collective bodies then becomes a determining factor in the psychology, culture, and Zeitgeist of the institution.[2]

Some Biblical examples would be the penal solidarity that existed between Achan and his household (Josh 7:16-26) and the similar solidarity that existed between King David and his people (2 Sam 24). But such representation and corporate solidarity is not irrespective of the behavior of the individual. While God may visit the sins of the parents upon the children (Exod 20:5; 34:7; Num 14:18; and Deut 5:9), the children (or the parents) are never punished because of another’s sins (Deut 5:9; 24:16, Ezek 18:20). This isn’t a discrepancy. Rather, it is evidence of the spiritual influence the head of a household has upon shaping the mentality and behavior of that household, both for the good and the bad. This is why the Bible stresses the importance of raising a child in the ways of the Lord.[3] Indeed, the shaping effect can be profound. Both consciously and unconsciously we pick up the habits, temperament, and even the sins of our parents. The influence of leading a household can transfer to general leadership in leading a church or other institution. This is one reason the pastorals see good household management as a prerequisite for church leadership (1 Tim 3:4-5; Titus 1:6). Nevertheless, the influence of the leadership does not absolutely determine the behavior of the followers. These are generalities that can allow for particulars. Good parents can have bad children, and bad parents can have good children. We are all judged based on our own behavior. Nevertheless, the ancient Hebrews believed that active participation within a corporate body created an oscillation between the individual and the communal, particularly in the way the corporate leader spiritually influences the communal body.

We see this concept of communal solidarity with Jesus in the New Testament and the individual-corporate oscillation that exists between him and his followers. In Daniel 7, the figure of the “Son of Man” stands for "the saints of the Most High" (7:18, 21-22) and "the people of the saints of the Most High" (7:27). Jesus specifically identifies himself with this corporate “Son of Man” figure (Matthew 24:30; 26:64; Mark 14:62; Luke 21:27; 22:69). The Suffering Servant is also a corporate figure (Isaiah 41:8-9; 44:1; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3). Jesus identifies the figure with himself in Luke 22:37. The same identification can be found in Matthew 8:17, Mark 15:28, John 12:38, Acts 8:32–33, Romans 10:16, 15:21 and 1 Peter 2:22. Furthermore, we have voluminous references to people being “in Christ” throughout the New Testament (see Rom 6:11; 8:1, 2, 39; 15:17; 1Co 1:2, 30; 3:1; 4:10, 15, 17; 15:18-19, 22, 31; 2Co 5:17; Gal 2:4, 16, 17; 3:14, 26, 28; Eph 1:1, 3, 10, 12, 20; 2:6-7, 10, 13; 3:6, 11, 21; Phl 3:3, 9, 14; Col 1:28; 1 Th 4:16). Note a few examples:

“redemption which is in Christ (en Christo) Jesus” (Rom 3:24)

“For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ (en Christo) Jesus our Lord.” (Rom 6:23)

“So we, who are many, are one body in Christ (en Christo), and individually members one of another.” (Rom 12:5)

These references to being “in Christ” should be understood as a locative, indicating the position of the individual, the Church, etc. within Christ’s corporate figure. Indeed, the followers of Jesus - the Church itself - are frequently called the “body of Christ” (Rom 12:5; 1 Cor 12:12-27; Eph 3:6; 5:23; Col 1:18, 24). Not only that, Christian believers as a group are referred to as a Temple (1 Cor 3:16, 17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). To put this altogether: believers are in Christ, they are the body of Christ, they are a Temple, Jesus is a Temple, and believers are a part of that Temple body. There is an oscillation between individual Christians within the community of believers and Christ himself in which they become a whole person under Jesus’ influence, so that what one says about Jesus one can say about the whole of those within him. Note these two examples:

“[T]o the extent that you did it to one of these brothers of mine, you did it to me” (Matt. 25:40, 45)

“Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?” (Acts 9:4)

Therefore, individuals are “baptized into Christ” (Romans 6:3; Gal 3:27) and, thus, are crucified and resurrected with him (Romans 6:5-11; Gal 2:20; Col 3:1-7). In 1 Peter, because believers are incorporated into Christ, they share in his sufferings (4:13-14). This is how the logic works: if the sufferings of Christ (1:11; 2:7, 21-24; 4:1; 5:1) lead to his glory (1:11, 21; 3:22; 4:13; 5:1, 4, 10) then their sufferings will also lead to glory in Christ (1:7-8; 2:5, 9-10; 4:13-14; 5:1, 4, 6, 10). Thus, the sufferings the recipients of the letter are currently experiencing will lead to glory in Christ. In 3:18-22, Peter, like Paul in Colossians 2:9-15, connects the believers’ participation in Christ’s death and resurrection, symbolized in baptism (v. 21), with the subjugation of the powers that followed that death and resurrection.

One of the central beliefs of Christianity is that God enthroned Jesus as King of the world, following his death and resurrection. Essentially, Jesus currently rules this world, sitting at the right hand of God (Mark 14:62; Matthew 22:44; 25:33-34; 26:64; Daniel 7:13; Acts 2:33; 7:55-56; Romans 8:34; Ephesians 1:20; Colossians 3:1; Hebrews 1:3; Hebrews 8:1; 10:12; 12:2; Revelation 3:21; Psalm 110). Having been made king over the world, all power and authority has been given to him (Matthew 28:18) and all powers and authorities are being subjected to him (Ephesians 1:20-22; Philippians 2:8-11; 1 Corinthians 15:24; Colossians 1:13; 2:10, 15; Jude 1:25; Revelation 2:26-27; 12:10; Matthew 9:8; 21:23; Mark 3:15; John 5:27; 17:2; Psalm 110). Because believers participate in Christ, they participate in subjecting the Powers to Christ’s authority (1 Corinthians 15, Ephesians, 1 Peter, Psalm 110, Daniel 7, Matthew 28:18-20). What are these Powers?

Walter Wink[4] has successfully argued that “’principalities and powers’ are the inner and outer aspects of any given manifestation of power. As the inner aspect they are the spirituality of institutions, the ‘within’ of corporate structures and systems, the inner essence of outer organizations of power. As the outer aspect they are political systems, appointed officials, the ‘chair’ of an organization, laws.”[5] He arrives at this conclusion by surveying and analyzing the whole range of New Testament usage of the language of Power with corroborating support from the contemporaneous literature. He concludes that the Biblical writers employed interchangeable terms of Power which can refer either to the visible or invisible aspects of any given manifestation of Power, or even both together, as the context required.[6] The language employed indicates that, in the Biblical view, the Powers are both visible and invisible, both earthly and heavenly, both spiritual and institutional.[7] Wink notes the following:

The clearest statement of this is Col. 1:16 which should have been made the standard for all discussions of the Powers: “For in him [the Son] all things were created, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones (thronoi) or dominions (kyriotētes) or principalities (archai) or authorities (exousia) – all things were created through him and for him.” The parallelism of the Greek, ably rendered here by the RSV, indicates that these Powers are themselves both earthly and heavenly, visible and invisible.[8]

                In this view, the Biblical thought is that there is a spirituality behind (or within) physical manifestations of power. Behind every ruler, behind every nation, behind every administrator, institution, church, and pastor, there is a spirituality at work.[9] The Powers possess simultaneously both an outer, physical manifestation and an inner, spiritual essence, or gestalt corporate culture, or collective personality.[10] The spiritual Powers, specifically, then are not to be understood as separate “heavenly entities” but as “the inner aspect of material or tangible manifestations of power.”[11]  They do not have a separate, spiritual existence independent of their material counterpart but are inextricably connected to the physical.[12] In this sense, there is no matter-spirit dualism but one united, indivisible reality in which both the physical and the spiritual exist co-dependently.[13] These Powers must manifest themselves physically, become embodied and institutionalized, in order to be effective. However, it is the inner, invisible spirit that provides the Power with legitimacy, regulation, and compliance.[14] Every business, corporation, club, organization, school, government, denomination, and church have this combination of both outer and inner, visible and invisible, physical and spiritual. The Powers are both spiritual and institutional.

Importantly, these Powers are not fundamentally bad but the good creation of a good God. However, all of them have fallen into corruption, having turned towards idolatry, becoming more or less evil in intent.[15] It is when a Power turns towards idolatry, placing its own will above that of God’s, however consciously or unconsciously, that the Power becomes demonic.[16] In John Howard Yoder’s analysis of the fallen Powers,

[W]e find them seeking to separate us from the love of God (Rom. 8:38); we find them ruling over the lives of those who live far from the love of God (Eph. 2:2); we find them holding us in servitude to their rules (Col. 2:2); we find them holding us under their tutelage (Gal. 4:3). These structures which were supposed to be our servants have become our masters and our guardians.[17]

“Demons” are the psychic spiritual Powers emanated by organizations, institutions, individuals or sub-aspects of individuals whose energies are bent on overpowering others in a radical rejection of and idolatrous estrangement from God.[18] And in all its manifestations, the demonic is simultaneously spiritual and physical, invisible and visible, heavenly and earthly, inner and outer.

These fallen, corrupted Powers, these demonic institutions and the individuals they mutually influence, all manifested in idolatrous businesses, corporations, governments, institutions, churches, leaders, administrators, pastors, laws, and constitutions, down through history, creating the ethos and Zeitgeist of the age, come together as both an inner and outer reality in the person of the Satan.[19] He is the interiority of an idolatrous society at fundamental odds with its Creator. He is the corporate personality of the world as the sum total of all humanity’s evil down through history.[20] He is “the god of this world” (2 Cor. 4:4), “the archetypal representation of the collective weight of human fallenness, which constrains us towards evil without even being aware of it”, and “the symbol of the spirit of an entire society alienated from God.”[21]

These are the idolatrous Powers that have enslaved the world and from whom people need to be redeemed (Isaiah 42:5-9; 46:1-13; 51:1-23). The means of this slavery is sin (Rom 6:16-22; John 8:34; 2 Pet 2:19; Galatians 5:1). For the powers to be defeated and for people to be redeemed, sin must be dealt with. It is the forgiveness of sins which redeems people from its slavery, creating the exile-ending exodus from the Powers.

“For He rescued us from the domain of darkness, and transferred us to the kingdom of His beloved Son, in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins.” (Col 1:13-14)

“And you were dead in your trespasses and sins, in which you formerly walked according to the course of this world, according to the prince of the power of the air, of the spirit that is now working in the sons of disobedience.” (Eph 2:1-2)

It was Jesus who defeated these corrupted Powers on the cross and through his resurrection and is now subjecting them to his Lordship. It was his work that brought about the ultimate forgiveness of sins that broke the hold the Powers had over individuals and humanity. Again, because believers are incorporated into the body of Christ through faith symbolized in baptism, they participate in Christ’s work as his hands and feet, subjecting the Powers to obedience.

This is what Jesus was teaching in Matthew 18. In “seventy times seven”, he was telling his contemporary followers to actively participate in his exile-ending forgiveness of sins which frees those under the slavery of the Powers. His warns that their redemption is corporately connected to their activity in redeeming others through forgiveness of sins.

Jesus’ death and resurrection brought the corporate future into the individualized present. New creation was brought forward into the present with Jesus (1 Corinthians 15). Future resurrection of all of God’s people has been actualized in the present resurrection of Jesus. Jesus has been justified by God in the present so that Christians can be justified by faith in anticipation of a future justification.[22] Jesus has subjected the Powers and Christians are participating in that subjection. God has forgiven sins in Christ and those in Christ must actively participate in that forgiveness to bring out those still within the exiled slavery of the Powers under sin.

When we read Genesis, we see the horrendous collapse of humanity into exilic sin in chapters 3-11. In chapters 12, 15, and 17, God calls Abraham in a covenantal plan to redeem the world by creating a family that will outnumber the stars. In doing so, God predicts both a slavery and exodus of that family (15:13-16). It is Isaiah 40-55 that picks up on this theme of sin, exile, covenant, and exodus, noting that God’s plan is not just to reverse the Exodus-like slavery of the Babylonian exile but the exile from Eden itself (55:13, cf. Gen 3:17-18).[23] It is our participation in this “seventy times seven” forgiveness of sins which redeems others from the slavery of sin and breaks the hold of the idolatrous Powers, freeing the world and ending the exile of creation (Romans 8).

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[1] Michael F. Bird notes, Matthew’s citation of Hos 11:1 (2:14) and Jer 31:5 (2:17-18) “makes it clear that Israel is experiencing exilic conditions and pre-exodus-like oppression” (Jesus is the Christ [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012], 65-66).

[2] See the following sources for fuller examinations of the subject: E. Earle Ellis, Pauline Theology: Ministry and Society (Grand Rapids: William Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1989); Aubrey J. Johnson, The One and the Many in the Israelite Conception of God (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1961); Aubrey J. Johnson, The Vitality of the Individual in the Thought of Ancient Israel (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1949); H. Wheeler Robinson, Corporate Personality in Ancient Israel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964), Sang-Won (Aaron) Son, Corporate Elements in Pauline Theology (Roma: Editrice Pontificio Instituto Biblico, 2001), and Frank Stagg, Polarities of Human Existence in Biblical Perspective (Macon, GA: Smyth & Helwys Publishing, Inc., 1994).

[3] See the Proverbs, particularly 22:6.

[4] Naming the Powers: The Language of Power in the New Testament (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1984), Unmasking the Powers: The Invisible Forces That Determine Human Existence (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1986), Engaging the Powers: Discernment and Resistance in a World of Domination (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992), and The Powers That Be: Theology for a New Millennium (New York: Double Day, 1998).

[5] NTP 5.

[6] Ibid., 118.

[7] ETP 3.

[8] NTP 11. Also, 1 Cor 2:6-8 and Col 2:14-15.

[9] He further notes concerning the various terms of Power, “The most frequent usage was for human incumbents-in-office, but there was also a pervasive awareness of the ways power is organized, which required a more abstract or structural usage of the terms. Thus archai could represent, like archontes, persons-in-roles, magistrates, governors, elders, and kings-in-office. But it could also denote the office itself, or the power the office represents. Thronos too seemed to emphasize not the occupant of the ‘seat’ of power but the ‘seat’ itself as the symbol of continuity, perpetuity, legitimacy, and popular consent. Kyriotes … seemed to point more to the sphere of influence or territory ruled by a kyrios than to the ruler as such. Exousia … most frequently denotes the legitimations, sanctions, and permissions that undergird or authorize the use of power … dynameis pointed more specifically to the situations or forces by which power is imposed. But all these could also be applied as the need arose to spiritual powers, good and evil” (NTP 101).

[10] NTP 104; UTP 2; ETP 3.

[11] NTP 104.

[12] Ibid.,105-106.

[13] UTP 2.

[14] NTP 5; 106; UTP 4. See also Yoder, John Howard. The Politics of Jesus, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1994), 142.

[15] NTP 104.

[16] Ibid., 5.

[17] Yoder, 141.

[18] UTP 59; NTP 104-105.

[19] Ibid., 25.

[20] Ibid., 24.

[21] Ibid.

[22] Even in Christ, while we are justified by faith in the present, future justification is based upon our Spirit-enabled works (Rom 2:13, 15-16, 26-29; 14:10-12; Phil 1:10-11; 2:12; 3:12-16; 1 Cor 3:15; 4:4-5; 5:5; 2 Cor 5:10; Eph 6:8; 2 Thes 1:11; Ps 62:12; Jas 1:22-25; 2:20; Matt 19:16-22; Mark 10:17-22; Luke 18:18-23). It is the Spirit’s influence that is working through our freedom, sanctifying us in Christ (Phil 1:6, 2:13; 4:13; 1 Cor 15:10; Col 1:10, 29; Rom 8:2-27; Gal 5:22-23; 6:8; 2 Cor 3; Deut 30; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Jas 1:21; Matt 19:23-30; Mark 10:23-31; Luke 18:24-30). This is not earning salvation through a Pelagian-based merit system but seeking it through a patient, Spirit-enabled living, freeing us to do the good works for which we were created (Rom 2:6-7, 10).

[23] See my brief commentary on Isaiah 40-55.